This article is also available on Academia.edu: Ṣirāt al-Mustaqīm: Finding the Middle Way Between Exaggeration (ifrāṭ) and Negligence (tafrīṭ) – Part I [1]
A recurring challenge in the historiography of the Prophet Muhammad’s[2] sīra[3] lies in its tendency to drift between two extremes: exaggeration (ifrāṭ)[4] and negligence (tafrīṭ).[5] This dual distortion—recognised by both classical scholars and contemporary muḥaddithūn[6] – has often obscured a faithful, balanced account of the Prophet’s life. Although the Prophet himself warned against such excesses, later generations have either embellished his legacy beyond recognition or reduced it to bare historical outlines, stripping away dimensions of his character and mission.
One of the most insightful commentators on this phenomenon was Professor ʿAbdul ʿAlī Ḥamīd al-Azharī (1943–2021 CE).[7] He identified this polarisation as a persistent ailment in sīra literature: on the one hand, an over-glorification that veers into hagiography; on the other, a reductive minimalism that denies the Prophet his unique spiritual stature. According to Professor Ḥamīd, these imbalances are not just historical oversights—they point to deeper epistemological and theological issues. At stake is more than the accuracy of the Prophet’s biography; it is the very way Muslims understand, interpret, and relate to his legacy. To overly exalt the Prophet risks deifying him, distancing believers from his lived human example. To reduce him to mere historical abstraction undermines his role as a divinely guided moral messenger, rendering his life devoid of the profound ethical and spiritual lessons it offers.
The danger of these extremes is not theoretical. It is a concern that emerges in the authentic ḥadīth[8] traditions. Ibn ʿAbbās, for instance, reportedly warned that when narrators fall into exaggeration or negligence, their reports lose credibility:
سَمِعْتُ ابْنَ عَبَّاسٍ، يَقُولُ إِنَّمَا كُنَّا نَحْفَظُ الْحَدِيثَ وَالْحَدِيثُ يُحْفَظُ عَنْ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ ـ صلى الله عليه وسلم ـ فَأَمَّا إِذَا رَكِبْتُمُ الصَّعْبَ وَالذَّلُولَ فَهَيْهَاتَ
Ibn ʿAbbās is reported to have said: “We used to memorise aḥadīth, and aḥadīth were memorised directly from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). However, if you fall into the extremes of either exaggeration or negligence in narrating aḥadīth, we can place no trust in your reports.[9]
This concern for balance finds another powerful expression in a tradition involving the Prophet Muhammad and ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib. Reflecting on the legacy of Jesus, they note how he was both unjustly vilified by some and excessively venerated by others—an imbalance with dire theological consequences. The Prophet Muhammad warned ʿAlī:
عَنْ عَلِيِّ بْنِ أَبِي طَالِبٍ، رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ قَالَ دَعَانِي رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ فَقَالَ إِنَّ فِيكَ مِنْ عِيسَى مَثَلًا أَبْغَضَتْهُ يَهُودُ حَتَّى بَهَتُوا أُمَّهُ وَأَحَبَّتْهُ النَّصَارَى حَتَّى أَنْزَلُوهُ بِالْمَنْزِلِ الَّذِي لَيْسَ بِهِ أَلَا وَإِنَّهُ يَهْلِكُ فِيَّ اثْنَانِ مُحِبٌّ يُقَرِّظُنِي بِمَا لَيْسَ فِيَّ وَمُبْغِضٌ يَحْمِلُهُ شَنَآنِي عَلَى أَنْ يَبْهَتَنِي أَلَا إِنِّي لَسْتُ بِنَبِيٍّ وَلَا يُوحَى إِلَيَّ وَلَكِنِّي أَعْمَلُ بِكِتَابِ اللَّهِ وَسُنَّةِ نَبِيِّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ مَا اسْتَطَعْتُ فَمَا أَمَرْتُكُمْ مِنْ طَاعَةِ اللَّهِ فَحَقٌّ عَلَيْكُمْ طَاعَتِي فِيمَا أَحْبَبْتُمْ وَكَرِهْتُمْ
On the authority of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) called me and said: “You are like ‘Isa (in some way); the Jews resented him so much that they made false accusations against his mother, and the Christians loved him so much that they raised him to a status that is not appropriate for him.” [Ali then said] Two types of men will be doomed because of me; one who loves me and praises me and exaggerates about me, saying things that I do not have, and the one who hates me and his hatred of me makes him tell lies against me. Verily, I am not a Prophet, and I do not receive revelation; rather I act in accordance with the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of His Prophet (ﷺ) as much as I can. Whatever I command you to do of obedience to Allah, it is your duty to obey me whether you like it or not.[10]
Cautionary Words for Those Who Embellish the Life of the Prophet Muhammad
For those who embellish the life and experiences of the Prophet Muhammad, it is worth remembering that the Prophet himself warned—clearly and repeatedly—against such excesses:
قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ ـ صلى الله عليه وسلم ـ يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ إِيَّاكُمْ وَالْغُلُوَّ فِي الدِّينِ فَإِنَّمَا أَهْلَكَ مَنْ كَانَ قَبْلَكُمُ الْغُلُوُّ فِي الدِّينِ
The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: “O people, beware of exaggeration in religious matters for those who came before you were doomed because of exaggeration in religious matters.”[11]
سَمِعْتُ النَّبِيَّ صلى الله عليه وسلم يَقُولُ “ لاَ تُطْرُونِي كَمَا أَطْرَتِ النَّصَارَى ابْنَ مَرْيَمَ، فَإِنَّمَا أَنَا عَبْدُهُ، فَقُولُوا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ وَرَسُولُهُ
I heard the Prophet (ﷺ) saying, “Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a Slave. So, call me the Slave of Allah and His Apostle.[12]
Despite these clear instructions, many Muslims throughout history—and even today—have continued to romanticise the Prophet’s life in ways that conflict with the Qur’ān and the authentic ḥadīth traditions. Some sīra works portray the Prophet as superhuman, attributing miraculous qualities to him that render his moral and spiritual struggle inaccessible to the average believer. They layer his biography with fantastical stories, metaphysical explanations, and romanticised depictions, often eclipsing his lived humanity. Yet such narratives directly contradict the Qur’ān, which instructs the Prophet to proclaim…
قُلْ إِنَّمَا أَنَا بَشَرٌ مِّثْلُكُمْ يُوحَىٰ إِلَيَّ أَنَّمَا إِلَٰهُكُمْ إِلَٰهٌ وَاحِدٌ
Say, ‘I am only a human being, like you, to whom it has been revealed that your God is One.[13]
Complementing this verse from the Qur’ān are several hadith traditions in which the Prophet Muhammad reminds his community that he is, above all, a human being—subject to the same limitations, emotions, and shortcomings as anyone else.
اللَّهُمَّ إِنَّمَا مُحَمَّدٌ بَشَرٌ يَغْضَبُ كَمَا يَغْضَبُ الْبَشَرُ
O Allah, Muhammad is a human being. I lose my temper just as human beings lose temper.[14]
إِنَّمَا أَنَا بَشَرٌ إِذَا أَمَرْتُكُمْ بِشَيْءٍ مِنْ دِينِكُمْ فَخُذُوا بِهِ وَإِذَا أَمَرْتُكُمْ بِشَيْءٍ مِنْ رَأْي فَإِنَّمَا أَنا بشر
I am only a human being. When I issue any command to you regarding your religion, accept it; but when I issue any command to you based on my own opinion, I am merely a human being.[15]
إِنَّكُمْ تَخْتَصِمُونَ إِلَىَّ وَإِنَّمَا أَنَا بَشَرٌ وَلَعَلَّ بَعْضَكُمْ أَنْ يَكُونَ أَلْحَنَ بِحُجَّتِهِ
Indeed, you come to me with your disputes, and I am only a human being, perhaps one of you is more eloquent at presenting his argument than the other.[16]
إِنَّمَا أَنَا بَشَرٌ أَنْسَى كَمَا تَنْسَوْنَ
I am only a human being. I forget as you forget.[17]
Even ʿĀ’isha, the Prophet Muhammad’s wife, described him as “a normal human being—he used to inspect his clothes for lice, milk his own sheep, and serve himself.”[18] This grounded portrayal is echoed in numerous authentic hadith traditions, in which the Prophet openly acknowledges his humanity. He admitted that he, too, could forget, lose his temper, and recognised that others within his community were sometimes more skilled at resolving disputes than he was.
The Qur’ān and hadith traditions are consistent in emphasising this central point: the only distinction between Muhammad and the rest of humanity is that God chose him as His Messenger. The Qur’an repeatedly affirms this role,[19] while also stating—unambiguously—that like all other human beings, Muhammad would one day die. [20]
إِنَّكَ مَيِّتٌ وَإِنَّهُم مَّيِّتُونَ
You [Prophet] will certainly die, and so will they,[21]
وَمَا مُحَمَّدٌ إِلَّا رَسُولٌ قَدْ خَلَتْ مِن قَبْلِهِ الرُّسُلُ ۚ
Muhammad was a messenger, and like other messengers, they died[22]
Despite these clear affirmations, some Muslims have drifted into beliefs that conflict with this foundational message. Some claim that Muhammad is not truly dead but has entered a hidden state—into occultation—from which he watches and listens to events in the world. Yet the Qur’ān clearly reserves this quality of omniscience for God alone, conflicting with verses that state clearly:
وَعِندَهُ مَفَاتِحُ الْغَيْبِ لَا يَعْلَمُهَا إِلَّا هُوَ
He [God] has the keys to the unseen: no one knows them but Him.[23]
Such claims stem from love, no doubt, but also from a theological confusion that risks elevating the Prophet above his divinely appointed station.
This trend has led to a proliferation of sīra works riddled with conjecture, fantasy, and pious invention. Sincere Muslims, eager to follow the Prophet’s example—as instructed in the Qur’ān (33:21)[24]—often turn to these works for inspiration, only to be presented with a mythologised figure bearing little resemblance to the human Prophet of the Qur’ān and Sunnah. The result is a distorted relationship with the Prophet: one built on emotional devotion rather than informed emulation.
Muslims must therefore approach sīra literature with discernment. Any biography that contradicts the spirit or content of the Qur’ān and authentic hadith must be treated with caution. As the Qur’ān warns:
أَفَرَأَيْتَ مَنِ اتَّخَذَ إِلَٰهَهُ هَوَاهُ وَأَضَلَّهُ اللَّهُ عَلَىٰ عِلْمٍ وَخَتَمَ عَلَىٰ سَمْعِهِ وَقَلْبِهِ وَجَعَلَ عَلَىٰ بَصَرِهِ غِشَاوَةً فَمَن يَهْدِيهِ مِن بَعْدِ اللَّهِ
Have you seen the one who takes his own desire as a god, whom God lets stray despite his knowledge, sealing his ears and heart and covering his eyes– who can guide such a person after God [has done this]?[25]
Concluding Thoughts
In a landscape marked by extremes —where religious tradition often collides with romanticised myth or reductive scepticism—the challenge of recovering an authentic portrait of the Prophet Muḥammad speaks to far more than the discipline of Islamic historiography. It touches the core of how communities construct memory, transmit ethical ideals, and shape collective identity. The tension between ifrāṭ (exaggeration) and tafrīṭ (negligence) is not simply a theological concern, but a philosophical one. It reveals an enduring human struggle: how to honour the sacred without distorting it, how to venerate without idolising, and how to remain faithful to revelation without bending it to cultural sentiment or ideological ends.
Throughout history, prophetic figures have been subject to mythmaking and misrepresentation—sometimes exalted beyond human limits, other times diminished into mere historical footnotes. What this analysis uncovers is the epistemic cost of both trends. When reverence becomes hagiography, the Prophet’s human moral agency—his choices, his struggles, his doubts—are lost, making his example less accessible to ordinary believers. Conversely, when criticism veers into scepticism or minimalism, it empties his life of its ethical and metaphysical depth, reducing his message to historical circumstance rather than divine guidance.
In today’s world—where identity politics, populist theologies, and digital echo chambers shape how Muslims relate to their faith—the need for intellectual sobriety is more urgent than ever. A sīra rooted in the balance the ethical message of the Qur’ān and authentic ḥadīth tradition can liberate Muslims from the binaries of blind devotion and unthinking critique. It invites a renewed relationship with the Prophet—not as a figure of supernatural legend, nor as a distant relic of history—but as a moral exemplar whose humanity was part of his sacred mission.
To that end, the call to recalibrate our understanding of the Prophet is not merely academic. It is existential. It is about reclaiming a legacy grounded in divine wisdom and lived compassion. It is about restoring the Prophet’s place—not on an unreachable pedestal—but in the hearts, minds, and practices of those who seek to follow him with both love and reason. Only through such balance can his life become not just a story we tell, but a path we walk.
Reference:
[1] This first in a two-part article is part of a larger sīra project I began with the late Professor ʿAbdul ʿAlī Ḥamīd al-Azharī. It explores how the life of the Prophet Muhammad has often been misrepresented—either exaggerated into myth or stripped of its depth. By tracing the linguistic, theological, and historical roots of sīra, this work calls for a balanced portrayal grounded in Qur’ān and authentic ḥadīth. With your support—and God willing (inshāʾAllāh)—I hope to complete what we began: a clear, faithful, and spiritually meaningful account of the Prophet’s life.
[2] ﷺ – Peace and blessings of God be upon him
[3] Sin: sīra (سيرة), Pl: siyar (سير). Which translates as, “conduct” “behaviour” or “the biography of Muhammad.” See “مدرسة” in, Hans Wehr, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: Arabic-English., ed. by J. M. Cowan, 3rd edn (Ithaca, New York: Spoken Language Services Inc, U.S, 1976), p. 447.
To fully appreciate the concept of sīra, it is essential to explore its linguistic roots and scriptural significance. The term sīra derives from the Arabic root sāra, meaning “to travel,” “to move forward,” “to embark on a journey,” or “to be directed towards.” Over time, its meaning has expanded to include broader concepts, including “way of acting,” “way of life,” “conduct,” “lifestyle,” “tradition,” “résumé,” and “the morals, character, and life story of a person.” See: Sulayman Sertkaya, ‘A Critical and Historical Overview of the Sīrah Genre from the Classical to the Modern Period’, Religion, 13.196 (2022), 1–21 (p. 1).
[4] ifrāṭ (إفراط), which translate as “excess,” “exaggeration,” or “going beyond proper bounds”—especially in thought, action, or expression. See “افراط” in Hans Wehr, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: Arabic-English., ed. by J. M. Cowan, 3rd edn (Spoken Language Services Inc, U.S, 1976), p. 706.
[5] tafrīṭ (تفريط), which translates as “negligence,” “deficiency,” or “falling short” See “تفريط” in Wehr, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, p. 706.
[6] Sin: muhadith (محدث), Pl: muhaddithūn (محدثون) or muhadditheen (محدثين). See “محدث”, in Wehr, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, p. 162.
[7] Professor ʿAbdul ʿAlī Ḥamīd al-Azharī (1943–2021 CE)was a third-generation descendant of Syed Nazeer Husain Dehlawi (1805–1902 CE), the founder of the Ahl ul-Hadith school, and a ninth-generation descendant of Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703–1762 CE).
[8] Sin: ḥādīth (حديث), Pl: ‘ahadith (احاديث). See “حديث” in Wehr, p. 161.
[9] Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Yazīd Ibn Mājah al-Rabʿī al-Qazwīnī, ‘Chapter: Caution in Narrating from the Messenger of Allah (Saws)’, in Sunan Ibn Majah, trans. by Sunnah.com, Sunan Ibn Majah 27, Introduction, Hadith 27 (Arabic), Vol. 1, Book 1, Hadith 27 (English), 37 Books (Arabic), Books 37 (English) vols (USC-MSA) <https://sunnah.com/ibnmajah:27>.
[10] Abū ʿAbd Allāh Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Hanbal, ‘Musnad ’Ali Ibn Abi Talib’, in Musnad of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, trans. by Sunnah.com, Musnad Ahmad 1377, Book 5, Hadith 776 (Arabic) vols (USC-MSA) <https://sunnah.com/ahmad:1377>.
[11] Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Yazīd Ibn Mājah al-Rabʿī al-Qazwīnī, ‘Chapter: The Size of Pebbles to Be Thrown’, in Sunan Ibn Majah, trans. by Sunnah.com, Sunan Ibn Majah 3029, Book 25, Hadith 148 (Arabic), Vol. 4, Book 25, Hadith 3029 (English)., 37 Books (Arabic), Books 37 (English) vols (USC-MSA) <https://sunnah.com/ibnmajah:3029>.
[12] Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl al-Bukhārī, ‘Chapter: The Statement of Allah Taa’la: “And Mention in the Book, the Story of Maryam…”’, in Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī, trans. by Sunnah.com, Book 60, Ḥadīth number: 115 (Arabic), Vol. 4, Book 55, Ḥadīth number: 654 (English), 7 Books (Arabic), Books 93 (English) vols (USC-MSA) <https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3445>.
[13] Qur’an (18:110). English translation from: The Qur’an, trans. by M. A. S. Abdel Haleem, Reissue edition (OUP Oxford, 2008), p. 190.
[14] Ḥajjāj ibn Muslim Naysābūrī, ‘Chapter: Whomever Is Cursed, Reviled Or Prayed Against By The Prophet (SAW) When He Does Not Deserve That, It Will Be Purification, Reward And Mercy For Him’, in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, trans. by Sunnah.com, Sahih Muslim 2601e, Book 45, Hadith 120 (Arabic), Book 32, Hadith 6293 (English), 56 Vol. (Arabic), 43 Vols. (English) vols (Sunnah.com) <https://sunnah.com/muslim:2601e>; Ḥajjāj ibn Muslim Naysābūrī, ‘Chapter: Whomever Is Cursed, Reviled Or Prayed Against By The Prophet (SAW) When He Does Not Deserve That, It Will Be Purification, Reward And Mercy For Him’, in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, trans. by Sunnah.com, Sahih Muslim 2603, Book 45, Hadith 124 (Arabic), Book 32, Hadith 6297 (English), 56 Vol. (Arabic), 43 Vols. (English) vols (Sunnah.com) <https://sunnah.com/muslim:2603>.
[15] Muḥammad ibn ʻAbd Allāh Khaṭīb al-Tibrīzī, ‘Chapter: Reliance on the Book and the Sunnah – Section 1’, in Mishkat Al-Masabih, trans. by Sunnah.com, Mishkat al-Masabih 147, Book 1, Hadith 140 (Arabic) vols (Sunnah.com) <https://sunnah.com/mishkat:147>.
Ḥajjāj ibn Muslim Naysābūrī, ‘Chapter: The Obligation To Obey What He Says With Regard To Matters Of Religion, But Not What He Says With Regard To Worldly Matters’, in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, trans. by Sunnah.com, Sahih Muslim 2362, Book 43, Hadith 185 (Arabic), Book 30, Hadith 5831 (English), 56 Vol. (Arabic), 43 Vols. (English) vols (Sunnah.com) <https://sunnah.com/muslim:2362>.
[16] Abu ʿIsa Muhammad ibn ʿIsa at-Tirmidhi, ‘Chapter: What Has Been Related About The Severe Threat For One Who Is Awarded A Judgement For Something That Is Not His To Take’, in Jami’ al-Tirmidhi, trans. by Sunnah.com, Book 15, Hadith 19 (Arabic), Book 13, Hadith 1339 (English), 49 Books (Arabic), 46 Books (English) vols (Sunnah.com) <https://sunnah.com/tirmidhi:1339>.
Abū Dā’ūd al-Sijistānī, ‘Chapter: Regarding the Judges Judge When He Is Mistaken’, in Sunan Abī Dāwūd, trans. by sunnah.com, Book 25, Hadith 13 (Arabic), Hadith 24; Hadith 3576 (English), Hadith 3583, 43 (Arabic), 42 (English) vols (USC-MSA) <https://sunnah.com/abudawud:3583>.
Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl al-Bukhārī, ‘Chapter: The Advice of the Imam to the Litigants’, in Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī, trans. by Sunnah.com, Hadith Number 7169, Book 93, Ḥadīth number: 33 (Arabic) , Vol.9, Book 92, Ḥadīth number: 281 (English), 97 Vol. (Arabic), 93 Vols. (English) vols (USC-MSA) <https://sunnah.com/bukhari:7169>.
Ḥajjāj ibn Muslim Naysābūrī, ‘Chapter: So the Judgement of the Judge Does Not Change What Happened’, in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, trans. by Sunnah.com, Sahih Muslim 1713c, Book 30, Hadith 6 (Arabic), Book 18, Hadith 4249 (English), 56 Vol. (Arabic), 43 Vols. (English) vols (Sunnah.com) <https://sunnah.com/muslim:1713c>.
[17] Abū Dā’ūd al-Sijistānī, ‘Chapter: If One Prays Five Rak’ah’, in Sunan Abī Dāwūd, trans. by sunnah.com, 43 (Arabic), 42 (English) vols (USC-MSA), Sunan Abu Dawud 1022: Book 2, Hadith 633 (Arabic), Book 2, Hadith 1017 (English) <https://sunnah.com/abudawud:1022>.
[18] كَانَ بَشَرًا مِنَ الْبَشَرِ، يَفْلِي ثَوْبَهُ، وَيَحْلُبُ شَاتَهُ، وَيَخْدُمُ نَفْسَهُ. – Abu ʿIsa Muhammad ibn ʿIsa at-Tirmidhi, ‘The Humbleness Of Sayyidina Rasoolullah’, in Ash-Shama’il Al-Muhammadiyah, trans. by Sunnah.com, Ash-Shama’il Al-Muhammadiyah 341, Book 47, Hadith 13 (Arabic),Vol. 56. vols (Sunnah.com) <https://sunnah.com/shamail:341>.
[19] Qur’an (4:113), (5:41), (5:67), (5:92), (5:104), (6:10), (7:158), (8:1), (8:20), (9:59), (9:71)
[20] Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl al-Bukhārī, ‘Companions of the Prophet. “If I Were to Take Khalil …”’, in Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī, trans. by Sunnah.com, Sahih al-Bukhari 3667, 3668; Book 62, Hadith 19 (Arabic) , Vol. 5, Book 57, Hadith 19 (English),97 Vol. (Arabic), 93 Vols. (English) vols (USC-MSA) <https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3667>.
[21] Qur’an (39:30)
[22] Qur’ān (3:144)
[23] Qur’ān (6:59)
[24] “The Messenger of God is an excellent model for those of you who put your hope in God and the Last Day and remember Him often.”
[25] Qur’ān (45:23-24)