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Introduction
The story of postmodernism is inextricably linked to the rise of secularism and its global ambitions. In the eighteenth century, a period often seen as the beginning of a new worldview, society began to push religious belief into the private sphere, allowing public life to flourish without the constraints of ecclesiastical authorities.[1] This transformative period, known as the Enlightenment, marked a significant shift as reason and empirical inquiry started to overshadow the theological and metaphysical frameworks that had long dominated human understanding. Secularists envisioned a society where intellectual freedom could be enjoyed by all, free from the dogmas that had previously dictated social and moral life. As the world welcomed this newfound freedom of thought and the remarkable progress it inspired, philosophers like Baruch Spinoza, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and René Descartes faced the daunting task of finding a place for the divine in this brave new world.[2]
These philosophers were not only engaged in abstract philosophical debates, but also in shaping a new societal framework where religion, while still acknowledged, would no longer dictate public and political life. They sought to reconcile the existence of God with the emerging empirical worldview – a task that would influence Western thought for centuries. Secularists have long hailed the Enlightenment as the dawn of reason, a crucial time when scientific paradigms replaced the perceived errors of faith-based sciences.[3] In this new era, they argued, humanity could finally break free from the shackles of religious dogma and explore the frontiers of knowledge.
Humanity hungered for the freedom of the vast plain outside the City of God. The gradual loss of balance and perspective has found compensation in the multiplication of material comforts and conveniences.[4]
The Enlightenment marked a transformative chapter in Western philosophy, offering secularists a framework to systematically diminish the influence of religion in society. Industrialised Europe, emerging from this intellectual revolution and fuelled by imperial ambitions, positioned itself as the leader of a global crusade to liberate humanity from what it perceived as the superstitions that had long clouded human understanding. Emboldened by this newfound confidence, Europe assumed the role of the torchbearer of reason and progress, dispelling the ignorance that had stifled advancement for centuries. [5]
Globalisation, seen as the key to compressing time and space into a unified “world community,” was embraced as the ideal mechanism for this transformation. [6] Secularists championed it as the ultimate tool to dissolve cultural, social, geographical, and religious barriers, replacing them with a coherent socio-political discourse rooted in rationality. [7] Their objective was clear: to forge a world where human progress was no longer restrained by atavistic beliefs but driven by reason, scientific innovation, and the principles of secular governance.
This article critically examines the fundamental tenets of secularist ideology, particularly in light of the forces of globalisation that have progressively undermined their relevance. While a comprehensive analysis of secularist thought exceeds the scope of this article, we will concentrate on three of its central promises:
- The pursuit of improved living standards through scientific advancement.
- The establishment of a global political framework rooted in the nation-state model.
- The quest for harmony and solidarity through secularism, achieved by restraining religious fervour.
Ironically, secularists regarded globalisation as the best means for disseminating their ideals, unaware that, in the post-modern era, it would instead serve as a catalyst for the resurgence of religion.
The Global Paradox: The Revival of Religion and Identity in a Shrinking World
The modern secular state, often unintentionally, laid the groundwork for globalisation to take hold across the world.[8] The twentieth century witnessed an unprecedented acceleration in the integration of global systems, leading to profound transformations in the way societies functioned and interacted. Globalisation was not merely an economic or technological phenomenon; it emerged as a cultural and ideological force that began to reshape the very fabric of daily life.
Throughout the twentieth century, globalisation influenced debates and redefined boundaries as the world grappled with issues that transcended national borders.
…worldwide information systems, global patterns of consumption, the development of cosmopolitan lifestyles, global sports events like the Olympic games, tourism, the declining influence of the nation state, the growth of global military systems like NATO, the worldwide ecological crisis, global epidemics like HIV/AIDS, worldwide political systems like the United Nations, global political ideologies like Marxism, worldwide religious movements, and migration. In short, the concept of globalisation is applied and used extensively.[9]
Globalisation brought with it a new consciousness, a sense of interconnectedness that surpassed traditional boundaries. People increasingly viewed themselves not merely as citizens of their respective nations but as members of a global community. This shift in perspective was facilitated by advances in communication technologies, which enabled the instantaneous exchange of information and ideas across vast distances. As the world grew smaller, this contraction of time and space fostered a reimagining of identity and belonging.[10]
As nations contributed to the global collective, their distinct identities as sovereign states began to erode.[11] The rise of multinational corporations, global governance structures, and transnational networks of communication and trade posed significant challenges to the sovereignty of the nation-state. Unlike the often-fragmented interpretations of secular, cultural, and religious theories, globalisation presented itself as a more coherent and inclusive force. Under the umbrella of globalism, individuals were afforded the freedom to explore a multitude of existential models, including traditional religious frameworks such as Islam and Christianity, which secularists had hoped to confine to history.[12]
However, the impact of globalisation – where ideas and influences transcend borders and continents, gaining momentum and significance – had unforeseen consequences that secularists had not anticipated. While globalisation was initially perceived as a means to propagate secular ideals, it also facilitated the resurgence of religious and cultural identities that had been suppressed or marginalised. The very forces secularists believed would usher in a homogeneous, secular world order were now contributing to the revitalisation of religious traditions and the reassertion of cultural particularities.
…no single force can be said to have had a greater impact on propelling globalization forward than religion, which has always sought to spread its message across the boundaries of borders, clans, and ethnicities.[13]
“Better Living Through Better Science”
One of the core promises of secularism was the belief that improved living standards could be achieved through advancements in science. The Enlightenment placed immense value on empirical knowledge and scientific discovery, viewing these as the key to unlocking human potential and enhancing the quality of life. The technological progress that followed, from the Industrial Revolution to the digital age, seemed to affirm this conviction. Secularists argued that science, liberated from the constraints of religious dogma, held the potential to solve the world’s problems and steer humanity into a new era of prosperity and well-being.
The promise of “better living through better science” has, ironically, ushered in a range of unforeseen challenges. In the twenty-first century, individuals are not only working longer hours but are also inundated with an overwhelming flow of information, constantly struggling to keep pace with the relentless march of scientific and technological advancements. Psychologists have coined the term “technostress” to describe this modern affliction, a symptom of the growing pressure we face in a world where innovations, meant to improve our lives, often exceed our ability to manage them. [14]
The rapid acceleration of technological change has created an environment where people are perpetually adjusting, forced to master new tools and processes just to maintain their footing. Instead of offering the promised freedom, science has intensified the burden of responsibility, leaving little time for personal reflection or meaningful family connections. As competition for employment escalates, mass migration to urban centres has further strained this balance, severing the communal and familial ties that once brought comfort and stability to rural life. What was intended to elevate society has instead deepened its challenges, reshaping both our personal and collective realities.[15]
This migration, spurred by the allure of economic opportunity, has had profound social and psychological repercussions. In urban environments, individuals are often severed from the traditional support networks of family and community. They find themselves surrounded by strangers in fast-paced, competitive settings. This has led to a pervasive sense of alienation and dislocation, as individuals struggle to find meaning and connection in an increasingly impersonal and indifferent world.[16]
Today, many individuals feel adrift in cities, isolated from familiar traditions and surrounded by strangers, with their sense of identity and belonging eroded by the very forces that once promised progress. Globalisation, while promoting the vision of a singular, integrated global village, has simultaneously forced individuals to confront their own prejudices, adding the weight of guilt to the already heavy burdens of modern life. The concept of a global community is both liberating and oppressive; it heightens awareness of vast inequalities and injustices, which can lead to a sense of helplessness as people realise that the problems facing humanity are too large and complex for any single person or nation to resolve.[17]
This dichotomy – between secularism’s marginalisation of religion and globalism’s inclusive embrace of diverse beliefs – highlights the complex relationship between the two. While secularism sought to diminish the influence of faith, globalism has incorporated religious traditions into a broader framework of universal morality. This is evident in the establishment of international policies such as the Geneva Convention and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as in the formation of political institutions like the United Nations. Although these entities are grounded in secular principles, they have had to engage with religious and cultural diversity, recognising that a truly global order cannot be constructed by excluding any significant segment of humanity.
The events of September 11th, 2001 starkly exposed the fragility of secular promises. The world watched as the United States, one of the most powerful secular nations, was brought to its knees by a radical religious ideology believed to be a relic of the past. This forced many to question the security that secularism purported to offer. The attacks served as a sobering reminder that religious belief, far from being a vestige of history, remains a potent force in the contemporary world. The global response, which encompassed not only military action but also a renewed emphasis on dialogue and understanding between different faiths, underscored the necessity for a more nuanced approach to the relationship between secularism and religion.[18]
Disintegration of the Nation-State
At the heart of modern secular society lies the concept of the nation-state, a construct that originated from the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty aimed to end the civil and religious wars that had plagued Europe since the Reformation.[19] Often heralded as the genesis of the modern international system, the Treaty of Westphalia established sovereign states as the principal actors on the global stage, each endowed with the authority to govern its own territory and people without external interference.[20] This marked a significant departure from the previous order, where the Church and the Holy Roman Empire exerted considerable influence over the affairs of nations.
The success of the treaty diminished the Church’s influence, enabling European princes to assert greater control over their provinces and fostering the development of ideas that aligned with their political ambitions. The rise of the nation-state was closely intertwined with the secularisation of political authority, as rulers sought to consolidate their power by curbing the influence of the Church and other religious institutions. This shift was accompanied by the emergence of new theories of governance that emphasised the separation of church and state and prioritised reason and law over religious doctrine.[21]
As the Enlightenment unfolded, thinkers such as Johann Gottfried von Herder advanced new theories centred on the organic evolution of nation-states, each guided by the “spirit of the age” (Volksgeist). Herder envisioned a future in which individual nations would assume responsibility for their own progress, eventually converging into a unified global alliance – a mission that, in his view, Christianity had failed to achieve.[22] Herder’s ideas were instrumental in the development of nationalism, which became a powerful force in shaping the modern world. The notion that each nation possessed a unique character and destiny, best expressed through its own independent state, resonated with those who felt that their identities were inadequately represented by the existing political order.
The French Revolution, epitomised by its Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyen,[23] appeared to embody Herder’s vision, severing the French citizenry from religious belief and promoting the idea of “one nation, one faith.” Contemporary conceptions of democracy and the primacy of the nation-state are often traced back to this pivotal moment in history. The revolution marked a turning point in the relationship between religion and the state, as the nascent French Republic sought to establish a secular order founded on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The Church was stripped of its privileges, and religious institutions were brought under state control, a necessary step in creating a modern, rational society where all citizens were equal before the law.[24]
However, globalisation has challenged the nation-state model, introducing a more intricate political landscape that necessitates a cosmopolitan approach to governance. Rather than adhering strictly to traditional notions of democracy, globalisation demands a shared moral outlook that reflects the diverse realities of urban centres across the globe.[25] The rise of global cities, which are often more interconnected with other global cities than with the rural hinterlands of their own nations, has given rise to new forms of political and social organisation that transcend national borders.[26] These global networks challenge the authority of nation-states, creating alternative centres of power and influence.[27]
As the nation-state model begins to unravel, the disillusionment felt by global citizens has reversed the secular theories of the past. While secularism once proclaimed the death of God, globalisation is now dismantling the nation-state. The decline of the nation-state has been accompanied by the emergence of new forms of identity and belonging, with individuals increasingly identifying as members of global communities rather than as citizens of specific countries.[28] This shift has profound implications for the future of governance, as traditional forms of political representation and accountability are increasingly called into question.[29]
The Return of Religious Fervour
Earlier, we examined how secularists sought to confine faith to the private sphere, operating under the belief that, by doing so, religion would gradually fade away. Secularism endeavoured to create a public domain free from religious influence, where decisions could be made based on reason and empirical evidence rather than theological principles. This approach was considered a crucial step in the development of a modern, progressive society, wherein individuals could pursue their own beliefs without interference from the state or religious authorities. Paradoxically, this very privatisation of faith has often deepened religious conviction, leading to what some consider a “purer form of belief,” untainted by the transient concerns of the world.[30] When religion is relegated to the private realm, it frequently becomes more intense and personal, as individuals seek to find meaning and connection in their own lives.
Unfortunately, this has also contributed to the rise of fundamentalist and extremist interpretations of religion, exacerbated by global communication channels that amplify the voices of the disenchanted.[31] In a world where traditional structures of authority are increasingly eroded, many people turn to religion as a source of certainty and stability. This has fostered the growth of religious movements that reject the secular order and strive to establish alternative communities grounded in their interpretations of faith. Such movements often emerge in response to the perceived shortcomings of secularism, as individuals feel their needs and concerns are ignored by the prevailing political and social systems.
The cohesive nature of religion draws like-minded individuals together, forming protective enclaves that resist mainstream culture and accentuate differences with “others.”[32] In an increasingly globalised world, where the familiar is often overshadowed by the foreign, these groups find solace in their shared beliefs, but also a sense of superiority that can incite conflict. The rise of religious extremism attests to the power of these convictions, as people are prepared to fight and even die for their faith in a world that appears increasingly antagonistic to their values.[33]
Émile Durkheim, a pioneering sociologist, recognised the enduring significance of religion in society. He posited that as industrialisation advanced, religion would be supplanted by secular spiritualism or an educational system better suited to the needs of modern life. Durkheim viewed religion as a social institution that provides individuals with a sense of belonging and purpose, aiding them in navigating the complexities of contemporary life.[34] However, he also anticipated that as societies became more complex and diverse, religion would lose its central role, gradually being replaced by other forms of social cohesion.[35]
Max Weber, another eminent sociologist, also expressed concern about the dehumanising effects of modernity, warning of a world populated by “little cogs in the machine,” driven by an insatiable desire for bureaucracy:
[t]he performance of each individual worker is mathematically measured, each man became a little cog in the machine and aware of this, his one preoccupation is whether he can become a bigger cog…it is horrible to think that the world could one day be filled with these little cogs, little men clinging to little jobs, and striving towards bigger ones…this passion for bureaucracy is enough to drive one to despair.[36]
In response to the secular world’s focus on the mundane and material, many people of faith have called for a mass return to the divine.[37] This resurgence of religious fervour is not merely a reaction to the perceived failures of secularism, but also a response to the alienation and dislocation brought about by globalisation. In a world where traditional identities and communities are under threat, religion offers a means for individuals to reconnect with their roots and find meaning in an increasingly fragmented and disorienting environment. Yet, as Lynch observes, both secularists and the faithful share a common concern over the moral degradation of society.[38]
Globalisation has not only brought this disenchantment to the forefront but has also facilitated the exchange of ideas across faiths and cultures, enabling religions to adapt and respond to the challenges posed by secularism since the Enlightenment. The globalisation of religion has created new opportunities for dialogue and collaboration, as people of different faiths come together to address common challenges and explore innovative ways of understanding and practising their beliefs.[39] This has led to the emergence of new forms of religious expression and identity, as individuals strive to navigate the complexities of a globalised world while remaining true to their faith.[40]
Concluding Thoughts
Both secular and religious beliefs have long promised the attainment of happiness and security. During the Enlightenment era, secularism emerged as the vanguard in this quest, positioning itself as the definitive path to progress and human flourishing. However, in our contemporary post-modern world, we are now in a position to critically evaluate the extent to which these promises have been fulfilled.[41] Secularism, which once seemed the inevitable trajectory of humanity, is now encountering challenges from unexpected sources.
Globalisation, initially perceived as a vehicle for disseminating secular ideals, has instead created a more equitable platform for all beliefs, traditions, and philosophies. The modern globalised landscape is a mosaic of diverse religious traditions and cultures, each contributing to the intricate tapestry of global life. Within this context, the once-dominant Western narrative has been questioned, and the theories underpinning secularism have been rendered increasingly obsolete. The globalised world has evolved into a utilitarian global state driven by consumerism, where individuals are free to select the products, ideas, and values that best align with their needs. This new world order is characterised by a fluidity and adaptability that defies the rigid structures of the past.
In a peculiar Hegelian twist, globalisation has afforded individuals the opportunity to voice their critiques of secularism, addressing the needs of the mind, the moral, the material, and the mystical simultaneously.[42] The modern world no longer belongs exclusively to secularism; it is a space where diverse religious traditions coexist and flourish, offering alternative narratives to the Western paradigm. The Muslim experience with modernity, for instance, is but one of many that have gained a global platform, challenging secularist theories and reminding us of the profound complexity and interconnectedness of our world.
In conclusion, globalisation has not only rendered secularist theories redundant but has also called into question the very foundations of the modern Western narrative. As the world continues to evolve, the relationship between secularism and religion will undoubtedly remain a central issue in the ongoing discourse concerning humanity’s future. Whether globalisation will ultimately lead to a more inclusive and harmonious world, or whether it will exacerbate existing tensions and conflicts, time will tell. What is clear, however, is that the simplistic binaries of the past – secular versus religious, modern versus traditional – are no longer adequate to capture the complexities of the globalised world in which we now live.
Shahwiqar Shahin, Ph.D
[1] Secularism, Religion and Multicultural Citizenship, ed. by Geoffrey Brahm Levey and Tariq Modood (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 4.
[2] Hobbes, for instance, perceived man as a mechanical entity, likening the human body to a composition of springs, strings, and joints. He extrapolated this analogy to the political sphere, envisioning the state as an artificial embodiment of man (Hobbes, Leviathan, Introduction). Hobbes further expressed his concerns about thoughts arising from sentiments and imagination, contending that only “the knowledge of consequence” could redeem humanity and enable it to surmount its inherent weaknesses (Hobbes, Leviathan, Chapter 5). Similarly, Descartes, in his Discourse on Method, conceived of God as the epitome of perfection; everything created by God, including reason, is inherently reliable, indispensable, and eternally sustained by divine providence. See: Raymond Corrigan, ‘The Rise of Secularism’, The Catholic Historical Review, Catholic University of America Press, 25.1 (1939), pp. 37–52 (p. 48).
[3] Corrigan, p. 42.
[4] Corrigan, p. 44.
[5] Fred Dallmayr, Border Crossings: Toward a Comparative Political Theory (Lexington Books, 1999), p. 718.
[6] Catarina Kinnvall, ‘Globalization and Religious Nationalism: Self, Identity, and the Search for Ontological Security’, Political Psychology, 25.5 (2004), pp. 741–67 (p. 742).
[7] Lene Sjørup, ‘Globalisation: The Arch-Enemy?’, Reproductive Health Matter: An International Journal on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights, 5.10 (1997), pp. 93–98 (p. 93).
[8] Islam, Globalization and Postmodernity, ed. by Akbar S. Ahmed and Hastings Donnan (Routledge, 2005).
[9] Sjørup, p. 94.
[10] Mohammad Uz-Zaman, Investing Wisely (ADL Research, The ADL Group, 2024), p. 32.
[11] Sjørup, p. 95.
[12] Levey and Modood, p. 6.
[13] Aslan Reza, Beyond Fundamentalism: Confronting Religious Extremism in the Age of Globalization, EPUB Edition (Random House Trade Paperback Edition, 2010), chap. 1.
[14] Elizabeth Marsh, Elvira Perez Vallejos, and Alexa Spence, ‘Overloaded by Information or Worried About Missing Out on It: A Quantitative Study of Stress, Burnout, and Mental Health Implications in the Digital Workplace’, Sage Journals, July-September, 2024, pp. 1–17 (p. 2), doi:10.1177/21582440241268830.
[15] Amir Rosenmann, Gerhard Reese, and James E Cameron, ‘Social Identities in a Globalized World: Challenges and Opportunities for Collective Action’, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11.2 (2016), p. 209, doi:10.1177/1745691615621272.
[16] Kinnvall, pp. 742–47.
[17] Karel Dobbelaere, ‘From Religious Sociology to Sociology of Religion: Towards Globalisation?’, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 39.4 (2000), pp. 433–47 (p. 435).
[18] Anthony Carroll, Religion, Religions in the Modern World – Seculrisation I and II (Lecture at Heythrop College, University of London, 2010).
[19] Ahmed and Donnan.
[20] Levey and Modood, p. 5.
[21] Anthony Carroll, Religion, Religions in the Modern World – Seculrisation and European Identity (Lecture at Heythrop College, University of London, 2010).
[22] Louis K. Dupré, The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture (Yale University Press, 2004), p. 188.
[23] Translation: Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
[24] Sjørup, p. 94.
[25] Sofia Näsström, ‘What Globalization Overshadows’, Political Theory, 31.6 (2003), pp. 808–34.
[26] Veit Bader, Secularism or Democracy? Associational Governance of Religious Diversity (IMISCOE Research, Amsterdam University Press, 2007), pp. 171–73.
[27] Sjørup, p. 94.
[28] François Gauthier, Religion, Modernity, Globalisation (Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2020), p. 8.
[29] Steven Kettell, ‘Secularism and Religion’, Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Politic (2019), pp. 1–15 (p. 12).
[30] Michael Haralambos and Martin Holborn, Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, 4th edn (Collins Educational, 1995), pp. 483–85.
[31] Peter Beyer and Lori Beaman, Religion, Globalization and Culture, International Studies in Religion and Society (Brill, 2007), pp. 52–53.
[32] Kinnvall, pp. 745–55.
[33] Haralambos and Holborn, p. 486.
[34] Gauthier, pp. 161–62.
[35] Gordon Lynch, The New Spirituality: An Introduction to Progressive Belief in the Twenty-First Century, 1st edition (I.B. Tauris, 2007), pp. 103–4.
[36] Larry Ray and Michael Reed, Organizing Modernity: New Weberian Perspectives on Work, Organization, and Society (Routledge, 1994), p. 106, doi:10.4324/9780203420737.
[37] Michael York, Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion (NYU Press, 2003), p. 168.
[38] Lynch, p. 154.
[39] J. Milton Yinger, Religion, Society, and the Individual: An Introduction to the Sociology of Religion (Macmillan, 1967), p. 25; Beyer and Beaman, p. 51.
[40] Inger Furseth and Pål Repstad, An Introduction to the Sociology of Religion: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives (Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2006), pp. 80–82.
[41] Sjørup, p. 95.
[42] Carroll, Religion, Religions in the Modern World – Seculrisation I and II.
